Biography of Captain Henry Morgan, Welsh Privateer

Biography of Captain Henry Morgan, Welsh Privateer Sir Henry Morgan (c. 1635–August 25, 1688) was a Welsh privateer who fought for the English against the Spanish in the Caribbean during the 1660s and 1670s. He is remembered as the greatest of the privateers, amassing huge fleets, attacking prominent targets, and being the worst enemy of the Spanish since Sir Francis Drake. Although he made numerous raids all along the Spanish Main, his three most famous exploits were the 1668 sack of Portobello, the 1669 raid on Maracaibo, and the 1671 attack on Panama. Morgan was knighted by King Charles II of England and died in Jamaica a rich man. Fast Facts: Henry Morgan Known For: Captain Morgan was one of the most notorious privateers of the 17th century.Born: c.  1635 in Llanrhymny,  WalesDied: August 25, 1688 in Lawrencefield, Jamaica Early Life   Morgans exact date of birth is unknown, but he is believed to have been born sometime around 1635 in Monmouth County, Wales. He had two uncles who had distinguished themselves in the English military, and Henry decided as a young man to follow in their footsteps. He was with General Venables and Admiral Penn in 1654 when they captured Jamaica from the Spanish. Privateering Morgan soon took up a life of privateering, launching attacks up and down the Spanish Main and Central America. Privateers were like pirates, only legal- they were mercenaries who were allowed to attack enemy ships and ports. In exchange, they kept most of the loot, although they did share some with the crown. Morgan was one of many privateers who had a â€Å"license† to attack the Spanish as long as England and Spain were at war (they fought on and off during most of Morgan’s life). In times of peace, the privateers either took to outright piracy or more respectable trades such as fishing or logging. The English colony on Jamaica, a foothold in the Caribbean, was weak, so it behooved the English to have a large privateer force ready for times of war. Morgan excelled at privateering. His attacks were well-planned, he was a fearless leader, and he was very clever. By 1668 he was the leader of the Brethren of the Coast, a group of pirates, buccaneers, corsairs, and privateers. Attack on Portobello In 1667, Morgan was sent to sea to find some Spanish prisoners to confirm rumors of an attack on Jamaica. He had grown legendary  and soon found that he had a force of some 500 men in several ships. He captured some prisoners in Cuba, and then he and his captains decided to attack the rich town of Portobello. In July 1668, Morgan took Portobello by surprise and quickly overran its meager defenses. Not only did his men loot the town, but they essentially held it for ransom, demanding and receiving 100,000 pesos in exchange for not burning the city to the ground. Morgan left after about a month. The sack of Portobello resulted in huge shares of loot for everyone involved, and Morgans fame grew even greater. Raid on Maracaibo By October 1668, Morgan was restless and decided to head once again to the Spanish Main. He sent out word that he was organizing another expedition. Morgan went to Isla Vaca and waited while hundreds of corsairs and buccaneers rallied to his side. On March 9, 1669, he and his men attacked the La Barra fort, the main defense of Lake Maracaibo, and captured it without much difficulty. They entered the lake and sacked the towns of Maracaibo and Gibraltar, but they lingered too long and some Spanish warships trapped them by blocking off the narrow entrance to the lake. Morgan cleverly sent a fireship against the Spanish, and of the three Spanish ships, one was sunk, one captured, and one abandoned. After that, he tricked the commanders of the fort (which had been rearmed by the Spanish) to turn their guns inland, and Morgan sailed past them at night. It was the privateer at his most devious. Sack of Panama By 1671, Morgan was ready for one last assault on the Spanish. Again he gathered an army of pirates, and they decided to attack the rich city of Panama. With about 1,000 men, Morgan captured the San Lorenzo fort and began the march overland to Panama City in January 1671. The Spanish forces were in terror of Morgan and abandoned their defenses at the last moment. On January 28, 1671, the privateers and the defenders met in battle on the plains outside the city. It was an utter rout, and the city defenders were scattered in short order by the well-armed invaders. Morgan and his men sacked the city and were gone before any help could arrive. Although it was a successful raid, much of Panamas loot was shipped away before the pirates arrived, so it was the least profitable of Morgans three major ventures. Fame Panama would be Morgans last great raid. By then, he was very rich and influential in Jamaica and had a great deal of land. He retired from privateering, but the world did not forget him. Spain and England had signed a peace treaty before the Panama raid (whether or not Morgan knew of the treaty before he attacked is a matter of some debate) and Spain was furious. Sir Thomas Modyford, the governor of Jamaica who had authorized Morgan to sail, was relieved of his post and sent to England, where he would eventually receive a light punishment. Morgan, too, was sent to England, where he spent a couple of years as a celebrity, dining in the fancy homes of lords who were fans of his exploits. He was even asked his opinion on how to improve Jamaicas defenses. Not only was he never punished, but he was knighted and sent back to Jamaica as lieutenant governor. Death Morgan returned to Jamaica, where he spent his days drinking with his men, running his estates, and fondly telling war stories. He helped organize and improve the defenses of Jamaica and administered the colony while the governor was absent, but he never again went to sea. He died on August 25, 1688, and was given a royal send-off. Morgan lay in state at the Kings House in Port Royal, ships anchored in the harbor fired their guns in salute, and his body was carried through town on a gun carriage to St. Peters Church. Legacy Morgan left behind a complicated legacy. Although his attacks put constant pressure on relations between Spain and England, Englishmen of all social classes loved him and enjoyed his exploits. Diplomats loathed him for violating their treaties, but the almost supernatural fear the Spanish had for him most likely helped drive them to the negotiating table in the first place. Still, Morgan probably did more harm than good. He helped build Jamaica into a strong English colony in the Caribbean and was responsible for lifting Englands spirits during an otherwise grim time in history, but he also was guilty of the death and torture of countless innocent Spanish civilians and spread terror far and wide on the Spanish Main. Captain Morgan remains a legend today, and his effect on popular culture has been considerable. He is considered one of the greatest pirates ever, even though he was actually not a pirate but a privateer (and would have been offended to be called a pirate). Certain places are still named for him, such as Morgans Valley in Jamaica and Morgans Cave on San Andres Island. His most visible presence today is probably as the mascot for the Captain Morgan brands of spiced rum and spirits. There are hotels and resorts named after him, as well as any number of small businesses in the places he frequented. Sources Cordingly, David. Under the Black Flag: the Romance and the Reality of Life among the Pirates. Random House, 2006.Earle, Peter G. The Sack of Panam Captain Morgan and the Battle for the Caribbean. Thomas Dunne Books, 2007.

Make Your Own Flash Paper (Nitrocellulose)

Make Your Own Flash Paper (Nitrocellulose) If youre a chemistry enthusiast with an interest in fire or history (or both), you probably ought to know how to make your own nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose is also known as guncotton or flashpaper, depending on its intended purpose. Magicians and illusionists use flash paper for a fire special effect. The exact same material is called guncotton and may be used as a propellant for firearms and rockets. Nitrocellulose was used as a film base for movies and x-rays. It may be mixed with acetone to make nitrocellulose lacquer, which was used on automobiles, aircraft, and musical instruments. One unsuccessful use of nitrocellulose was to make faux ivory billiard balls. The camphored nitrocellulose (celluloid) balls would sometimes explode upon impact, producing a sound much like that of a gunshot. As you might imagine, this didnt go over well in gunslinger saloons with pool tables. Its unlikely you will want to make your own exploding billiard balls, but you might want to try nitrocellulose as a model rocket propellant, as flash paper, or as a lacquer base. Nitrocellulose is extremely easy to make, but be sure to read through the instructions carefully before proceeding. As far as safety goes: Any protocol which involves strong acids should be performed by qualified persons wearing proper safety gear. Nitrocellulose cannot be stored for long periods of time, as it gradually decomposes into a flammable powder or goo (which is why many old films have not survived to the present day). Nitrocellulose has a low autoignition temperature, so keep it away from heat or flame (until you are ready to activate it). It does not require oxygen to burn, so once it ignites you cannot put out the fire with water. With all that in mind, heres how you make it. Key Takeaways: Make Nitrocellulose or Flash Paper Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable polymer. It is also known as flash paper, guncotton, or flash string.All you need to do to make nitrocellulose is treat cellulose with nitric acid or any other strong nitrating agent. The cellulose can come from paper, cotton, wood, or other plant matter.Nitrocellulose was first made by Alexander Parkes in 1862. This was the first man-made plastic, which was named Parkesine.While useful as a plastic, nitrocellulose is equally popular for its flammability. Flash paper burns almost instantaneously and leaves no ash residue. Nitrocellulose Materials Christian Friedrich Schà ¶nbeins procedure has been widely used. It calls for 1 part cotton to 15 parts acid. concentrated nitric acidconcentrated sulfuric acidcotton balls (almost pure cellulose) Nitrocellulose Preparation Chill the acids below 0 °C.In a fume hood, mix equal parts nitric and sulfuric acid in a beaker.Drop cotton balls into the acid. You can tamp them down using a glass stirring rod. Dont use metal.Allow the nitration reaction to proceed for about 15 minutes (Schà ¶nbeins time was 2 minutes), then run cold tap water into the beaker to dilute the acid. Allow the water to run for a while.Turn off the water and add a bit of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to the beaker. The sodium bicarbonate will bubble as it neutralizes the acid.Using a glass rod or gloved finger, swirl around the cotton and add more sodium bicarbonate. You can rinse with more water. Continue adding sodium bicarbonate and washing the nitrated cotton until bubbling is no longer observed. Careful removal of the acid will greatly enhance the stability of the nitrocellulose.Rinse the nitrated cellulose with tap water and allow it to dry in a cool location. Shreds of nitrocellulose will burst into flame if exposed to the heat of a burner or a match. It doesnt take much (either heat or nitrocellulose), so dont get carried away! If you want actual flash paper, you can nitrate ordinary paper (which is primarily cellulose) in the same manner as cotton. Chemistry of Making Nitrocellulose Nitrating cellulose proceeds as nitric acid and cellulose react to produce cellulose nitrate and water. 3HNO3 C6H10O5 → C6H7(NO2)3O5 3H2O Sulfuric acid is not required to nitrate the cellulose, but it acts as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, NO2. The first order reaction proceeds via electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose molecules.